In the pre-dawn hours, Bosaso’s main fishing landing site in north-eastern Somalia pulses with life. By 3 a.m., the docks are crowded with fishermen returning from night on the open sea, traders ready to haggle, government officials overseeing operations, and food vendors catering to the hungry masses. All of this unfolds against a backdrop of aging fish processing buildings interspersed with informal food stalls and bustling open-air markets — a profile not unfamiliar to many West African coastal towns.
Amid the diversity of marine bounty, it is the small gulper sharks that steal the spotlight. As loads are offloaded, one individual records the quantities while a youth expertly carves the sharks, separating out the coveted maws and collecting livers in buckets. “Business looks good,” he relays to researchers from ENACT, a transnational crime monitoring project — a reflection of the quiet economic engine at play here.
But behind the everyday scenes is a growing, shadowy trade centred on gulper shark liver oil, which, according to the wildlife trade monitoring network TRAFFIC, is valued for its high squalene content. Squalene is an ingredient prized in cosmetics, dietary supplements, and pharmaceuticals, with a particularly strong market in Asia. The global shark liver oil industry was valued at around $157.2 million in 2024, and industry experts project it could reach $263.6 million by 2033—figures that highlight just how lucrative and competitive the sector has become for players across Africa and beyond.
The conservation outlook for these sharks is grave. Several gulper shark species are listed as vulnerable or endangered on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List. Unlike faster-breeding fish, gulper sharks take years — up to 16 for females and 18 for males — to reach maturity, and they produce only one pup every two years. This extremely slow reproductive cycle makes them especially susceptible to rapid depletion, as pointed out by marine biologists and conservationists.
According to studies cited by ENACT, deepwater shark species like the gulper are even more at risk than many other marine animals. TRAFFIC data shows that half of the shark species targeted by the liver-oil trade are considered threatened with extinction. Most alarming is the Southern Indian Ocean population of gulper sharks, which reportedly plummeted by 97% between 2015 and 2020—an astonishing statistic echoing conservation crises in other African coastal regions, including West Africa’s own overfished stocks.
Recognising the urgent threat, the Puntland government announced a ban on gulper shark fishing in August 2024 and issued new measures aimed at tightening maritime regulation. Yet reports from the ground suggest enforcement remains weak, hampered by limited resources and persistent demand. Fishermen familiar with the trade told ENACT investigators that, despite the ban, gulper shark catches around Bosaso, Bargaal, and Qandala continue—though they note the population is visibly dwindling.
Local researchers detail how the illicit trade in gulper shark liver oil has drawn in influential actors: government officials allegedly ignoring the ban, clan elders facilitating transactions, entrepreneurs investing in processing, and fishers risking fines to supply the market. The oil trade is now so entrenched that, even after government bans, processing facilities operate in the shadows, and livers are sold to a close-knit group of buyers in Bosaso. Each organ, regardless of size, fetches about $1, but the true profit emerges during unregulated processing.
In an interview with ENACT, one facility operator explained, “We chop the livers and heat them to 70–100°C, adjusting the pH with alkaline additives.” This crude process, done without oversight or environmental controls, yields squalene-rich oil but also results in hazardous waste. Poor processing standards present health and ecological dangers, as leftover waste is often dumped indiscriminately, a scenario with resonance for many Nigerian and Ghanaian riverine communities battling illegal oil refining and its environmental toll.
Quality control falls to small, mobile teams working on behalf of export brokers. These groups assess oil quality, prepare shipments, and coordinate illegal transfers directly at sea—opting for secrecy to sidestep Puntland authorities and avoid taxes or confiscation. Shipments are smuggled onto foreign vessels or disguised beneath licit cargo, highlighting the sophistication of the supply chain and challenges for local maritime enforcement agencies.
On the Somali coast, the price of shark liver oil ranges from about $14.44 to $38.50 per kilogramme. Global buyers—mainly in China and the Gulf region according to ENACT—reportedly pay a hefty markup. For Nigerian and West African smoked-fish traders already familiar with the international fish trade, these numbers offer revealing insights into how lucrative marine resources can attract organised networks, especially where poverty and weak governance intersect.
According to TRAFFIC’s Glenn Sant and Senior Programme Coordinator Markus Burgener, major knowledge gaps remain regarding the scale and specifics of the gulper shark oil market. Issues include non-standardised trade codes, ambiguous traceability, and unclear export volumes—all making oversight and law enforcement particularly difficult in both Somalia and other exporting countries. For example, there is no easy way for customs officials to determine the species origin of shark oil, a loophole that encourages smuggling and hampers conservation efforts across Africa and globally.
However, momentum may be building for reform. Sant notes that as of 2025, international policymakers are considering listing gulper sharks as an endangered species. Should this occur, all exporting nations will need to issue strict licences and guarantee that all catches are sustainable and legal. For Nigeria and West African states with their own shark populations and export trade, such international regulation could drive significant changes in how marine commodities are managed.
Countries that allow illegal fishing of protected species within their waters could face international sanctions, including bans on their seafood exports. These restrictions would require governments to prove—through robust tracking and traceability mechanisms—that their gulper shark products came from safe, legal sources. Failure to comply, as experts warn, could have severe economic repercussions for communities reliant on fisheries income.
While Puntland’s regulatory response has had limited effect so far, analysts argue that its bans are an essential foundation. The next steps, they recommend, should include harmonising fishery laws across Somalia’s federal and state governments—an approach that could inspire similar regional frameworks in West Africa, where differing regulations across borders have often undermined anti-poaching efforts.
Central to a sustainable solution is accurate data collection and the identification of gulper shark refuges. Scientists and regulators call for a comprehensive management plan, including the use of advanced marine monitoring systems. Some West African countries have already made strides, such as Ghana and Nigeria’s partnership with regional fisheries monitoring groups to improve transparency. Notably, Indonesia’s collaboration with Global Fishing Watch has paved the way for real-time vessel tracking and enforcement—a model that could help curb illegal fishing along Africa’s own coastlines.
Marine surveillance upgrades and stronger law enforcement will require investment, technical support, and international partnerships. Groups such as the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and the UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) are already aiding some Somali and West African programmes. Local capacity-building, including upskilling of enforcement officers, is seen as crucial by African maritime advocacy organisations.
The lessons from Puntland resonate far beyond Somalia. In Nigeria, Ghana, and across coastal Africa, communities face the dual challenge of benefiting from rich fisheries while safeguarding marine biodiversity for future generations. Stronger governance, regional cooperation, and support for legal livelihoods — alongside international controls — may tip the balance. The debate now, as voiced by policy advocates, is how to act before vulnerable species are lost forever and local economies left further exposed.
ENACT’s research and reporting continue under the support of the European Union, in partnership with the Institute for Security Studies (ISS), INTERPOL, and the Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime. (This article is adapted with permission from ISS Today, distributed by Premium Times.)
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